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Code-Beispiel

Code-Beispiele » Mathematik

Einfache und schnelle Bigint-Erweiterung

Lizenz:Erster Autor:Letzte Bearbeitung:
k. A.Mitgliedstephanbrunker 29.07.2018

Wer mit Ganzzahlen > 64 bit arbeiten will, kommt um eine Bigint / Largeint -Erweiterung nicht herum. Die im Package enthaltene big_int ist leider verwaist, nur als complierte dll vorhanden und deshalb schwer zu verstehen. Alternativ gibt es aus dem Math-Package die largeint.bas, die aber in der Anwendung auch alles andere als einfach ist. Im freebasic.net - Forum bin ich auf die Big_Integer von Richard gestoßen, die dank eines eigenen Datentyps und überladener Operatoren ganz einfach einzubinden ist. Leider war dieses Programm sehr viel langsamer als die largeint.bas. Das konnte ich lösen, indem ich das ganze Programm optimiert habe, dazu musste ich auch die Division und die Komparatoren komplett neu schreiben. Dann habe ich die Struktur / den Typ komplett überarbeitet. Die Funktionen sind jetzt alle Member des Typs, alle Datentypen sind vollständig überladen.

Das bedeutet, man kann jetzt den Datentyp BIGINT genauso verwenden wie einen INTEGER. Lediglich die Funktion CAST (bigint, (irgendwas) ) geht nicht, weil man dazu den CAST-Teil von irgendwas ändern müsste. Darum funktionieren auch die Makros Bit, BitSet und BitReset nicht, weil diese intern einen CAST verwenden.

Eine kurze Anleitung steht am Anfang des Codes. Die gebräuchlichsten Formate zur Konvertierung in einen Bigint sind naturgemäß Strings, und zwar entweder dezimal, hexadezimal oder als binär mit den gleichen Konvertierungsfunktionen wie sonst auch (Bin, Hex, CV, MK ...).

Mit der Ursprungsversion dauerte die Suche nach einer 1024-bit Sophie-Germain-Primzahl drei Tage auf fünf Rechnern, jetzt bekommt das ein Rechner in einer Stunde hin. Die Geschwindigkeit ist aber nicht vordergründig, das können in anderen Sprachen programmierte Programme / Bibliotheken besser hin, FB ist sicherlich nicht für Geschwindigkeit optimiert. Dafür aber für einfach geschriebenen, leicht verständlichen Code und Bigint ist jetzt zu benutzen wie ein Integer, einfacher kann es nicht mehr werden.

Hier ist der Code am Stück, 2000 Zeilen. Weil das etwas unübersichtlich ist und weil ich die weitere Mitarbeit vereinfachen will, habe ich den Code aufgeteilt und ein Github-Repository erstellt: Externer Link!https://github.com/stephanbrunker/big_integer Außerdem habe ich eine ausführlichere Readme erstellt und ein Beispiel programmiert (Miller-Rabin-Primzahltest).

' version 2.8.1 29 July 2018
'================================================================
' by Stephan Brunker (stephanbrunker at web punkt de)
' based on version 1.2 by Richard @ freebasic.net/forum
' with credits to: Hartmut Ruske and frisian
'================================================================
' The easy way to use - analog to the "hello world" the 1+1:
'------------------------------
' #include "big_integer.bas"
' Dim as Bigint a,b,c,d
' a = 1234
' b = "1357239875892745982784975230987590287"
' c = VALBigint("&h3a84458e9bc47")
' d = a + b * c
' print d
'------------------------------
' hex and string input can be so long as you want - up to 4.29E09 bytes.
' input can be any data type (ulong, ulongint)
' also strings coded in decimal, hex or binary(endian reversed)
' all the operators are overloaded
' also all the comparators: = < > <> >= <=
' for additional functions look in the code, it should be
' well commented to see for what the functions are for
' you can also input and output in various formats, see section
' "Conversion Functions"
'===============================================================
' This package only handles integers encoded in a two's complement format.
' The first bit in the two's complement format is always the sign which
' takes the value of 1 = negative, 0 = positive or zero. Byte examples are;
' +127 = 0111 1111  most positive
'   +8 = 0000 1000
'   +7 = 0000 0111
'   +4 = 0000 0100
'   +2 = 0000 0010
'   +1 = 0000 0001
'    0 = 0000 0000  zero
'   -1 = 1111 1111
'   -2 = 1111 1110
'   -4 = 1111 1100
'   -7 = 1111 1001
'   -8 = 1111 1000
' -127 = 1000 0001
' -128 = 1000 0000  most negative
'----------------------------------------------------------------
' Each successive 32 bits are packed into a 4 byte block.
' Each block is stored in 4 successive bytes of a string.
'----------------------------------------------------------------
' Strings in FreeBASIC are indexed and printed from left to right. Big
' integers appear to be stored in strings backwards which can be confusing.
' The Left side of the string is the Right side of the number and vice versa.
' Beware: Shift_Left moves a string to the right, Shift_Right moves it left.
'----------------------------------------------------------------
' The first byte in the string is the least significant byte of the number.
' The last block in the string is the most significant block of the number.
' String s indexing has s[0] as the LS byte and s[len(s)-1] as the MS byte.
' These big integer strings are always multiples of 4 bytes long.
' The msb of a number is sign extended to the MS bit of the MS block.
'----------------------------------------------------------------
' A number is always stored in a way that correctly represents that number.
' Where an operation would overflow into the MSB, a sign block is
' appended to the number so as to prevent overflow or sign change.
' Unnecessary leading zero or all ones blocks are removed by prune.
'----------------------------------------------------------------
' String pointers may change if a string is created or any length is changed.

'================================================================
Type Bigint     ' a little endian, two's complement binary number
    s As String ' packed into a string, in blocks four bytes long

    ' Constructors
    '-------------
    Declare Constructor ()                    ' default constructor
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As Bigint)   ' copy constructor
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As Byte)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As UByte)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As Short)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As UShort)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As Long)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As ULong)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As Integer)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As UInteger)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As LongInt)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As ULongInt)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As Single)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As Double)
    Declare Constructor (ByRef a As String)

    ' let
    '----
    Declare Operator Let (ByRef a As Bigint)

    ' cast to other datatypes
    '------------------------
    Declare Operator Cast() As Byte     ' CByte
    Declare Operator Cast() As UByte    ' CUByte
    Declare Operator Cast() As Short    ' CShort
    Declare Operator Cast() As UShort   ' CUShort
    Declare Operator Cast() As Long     ' CLng
    Declare Operator Cast() As ULong    ' CULng
    Declare Operator Cast() As LongInt  ' CLngint
    Declare Operator Cast() As ULongInt ' CULngint
    Declare Operator Cast() As Integer  ' Cint
    Declare Operator Cast() As UInteger ' CUInt
    Declare Operator Cast() As Single   ' CSng
    Declare Operator Cast() As Double   ' CDbl
    Declare Operator Cast() As String   ' Str

    ' functions
    '----------
    ' private: (cannot make them really protected because the operators access them)
    'using them directly on your own risk, because everything is passed ByRef and changed internally
    Declare Static Function compare (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Long
    Declare Static Function square(ByRef aa As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Static Function mul2(ByRef a As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Static Function div2(ByRef a As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Static Sub div(ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint,ByRef q As Bigint, ByRef r As Bigint)
    Declare Static Sub prune(ByRef a As Bigint)

    ' public:
    Declare Static Function modpower(ByRef bb As Bigint, ByRef ee As Bigint, ByRef m As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Static Function factorial (ByRef a As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Static Function msbit(ByRef a As Bigint) As Long
    ' Overloading Bit / Bitset / BitReset is not possible, because these are macros
    ' containing a "cast(bigint,1)" operator, and you can only overload a cast from bigint to other
    ' and not to the bigint itself (this had to be done in the type integer for example)
    ' Couriously, #undef bit and declare a new Function bit(a as bigint, b as Ulongint)
    ' would work in this file, but not if the file is included in another project
    Declare Static Function Bit_Value(ByRef v As Bigint, ByVal b As ULongInt) As Long
    Declare Static Function Bit_Set(ByRef vv As Bigint, ByVal b As ULongInt) As Bigint
    Declare Static Function Bit_Reset(ByRef vv As Bigint, ByVal b As ULongInt) As Bigint

    ' implicit step versions
    Declare Operator For ()
    Declare Operator Step()
    Declare Operator Next(ByRef end_cond As Bigint) As Integer

    ' explicit step versions
    Declare Operator For (ByRef step_var As Bigint)
    Declare Operator Step(ByRef step_var As Bigint)
    Declare Operator Next(ByRef end_cond As Bigint, ByRef step_var As Bigint ) As Integer

    ' operate and assign
    Declare Operator += (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator -= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator *= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator \= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator Mod= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator ^= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator Shl= (ByRef rhs As LongInt)
    Declare Operator Shr= (ByRef rhs As LongInt)
    Declare Operator And= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator Or= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator Xor= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator Imp= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Declare Operator Eqv= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)

End Type

'================================================================
'    OVERLOADED OPERATORS:
'================================================================

    ' Comparators
    '-----------
    Declare Operator <     (ByRef As Bigint, ByRef As Bigint) As Integer
    Declare Operator >     (ByRef As Bigint, ByRef As Bigint) As Integer
    Declare Operator =     (ByRef As Bigint, ByRef As Bigint) As Integer
    Declare Operator <>    (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer
    Declare Operator <=    (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer
    Declare Operator >=    (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer

    ' Mathematical Operators
    '-----------------------
    Declare Operator +     (ByRef x As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator -     (ByRef x As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator +     (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator -     (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator *     (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator \     (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Mod   (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator ^     (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As LongInt) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Abs   (Byref x As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Sgn   (Byref x As Bigint) As Integer

    ' Bitwise Operations
    '-------------------
    Declare Operator Not   (ByRef x As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator And   (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Or    (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Xor   (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Imp   (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Eqv   (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Shl   (Byref a As Bigint, ByVal n As LongInt) As Bigint
    Declare Operator Shr   (Byref a As Bigint, ByVal n As LongInt) As Bigint

    ' Conversion Functions
    '---------------------
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as Byte) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as UByte) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as Short) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as UShort) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as Integer) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as UInteger) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as Long) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as ULong) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as LongInt) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as ULongInt) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as Single) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as Double) as Bigint
    Declare Function CBig Overload(a as String) as Bigint
    Declare Function Bin(ByRef s As Bigint) As String
    Declare Function Hex(ByRef s As Bigint) As String
    Declare Function Hex(ByRef s As Bigint, ByRef n As Ulong) As String
    Declare Function Uhex(ByRef s As Bigint) As String
    Declare Function UHexT(ByRef s As Bigint,ByRef n As ULong) As String
    Declare Function Oct(ByRef s As Bigint) As String
    Declare Function MkBigint(ByRef a As Bigint) As String
    Declare Function MkUBigint(ByRef a As Bigint) As String
    Declare Function ValBigint(ByRef a As String) As Bigint
    Declare Function ValUBigint(ByRef a As String) As Bigint
    Declare Function CVBigint(ByRef aa As String) As Bigint
    Declare Function CVUBigint(ByRef aa As String) As Bigint

'================================================================
'                       CONSTANTS
'================================================================
    ' pre-defining the strings for certain values is much faster
    ' then generating them on the fly, also operations with them
    Dim Shared As String Bigint_s0
    Bigint_s0 = Chr(0,0,0,0)
    Dim Shared As String Bigint_s00
    Bigint_s00 = Chr(0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0)
    Dim Shared As String Bigint_s1
    Bigint_s1 = Chr(1,0,0,0)
    Dim Shared As String Bigint_s2
    Bigint_s2 = Chr(2,0,0,0)
    Dim Shared As String Bigint_s_1
    Bigint_s_1 = Chr(-1,-1,-1,-1)

'================================================================
'                       CONSTRUCTORS
'================================================================

Constructor Bigint ()    ' default constructor
    this.s = Bigint_s0   ' zero
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As Bigint) ' copy constructor
    this.s = a.s
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As Byte)
    If (128 And a) Then
        this.s = Chr(a,-1,-1,-1)
    Else
        this.s = Chr(a,0,0,0)
    End If
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As UByte)
    this.s = Chr(a,0,0,0)
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As Short)
    If (32768 And a) Then
        this.s = Chr(LoByte(a), HiByte(a), -1, -1 )
    Else
        this.s = Chr(LoByte(a), HiByte(a), 0, 0 )
    End If
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As UShort)
    this.s = Chr(LoByte(a), HiByte(a), 0, 0 )
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As Long)
    this.s = Bigint_s0
    Dim As Long Ptr bip = CPtr(Long Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
    Dim As Long Ptr  ip = CPtr(Long Ptr, @a)
    *bip = *ip
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As ULong)
    this.s = Bigint_s0
    Dim As ULong Ptr bip = CPtr(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
    Dim As ULong Ptr uip = CPtr(ULong Ptr, @a)
    *bip = *uip
    If (128 And this.s[3]) Then this.s &= Bigint_s0 ' make it positive
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As Integer)
    If a < -2147483648 Or a > 2147483647 Then   ' integer<64>
        this.s = Bigint_s00
        Dim As LongInt Ptr bip = CPtr(LongInt Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
        Dim As LongInt Ptr lip = CPtr(LongInt Ptr, @a)
        *bip = *lip
    Else                    ' integer<32>
        this.s = Bigint_s0
        Dim As Long Ptr bip = CPtr(Long Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
        Dim As Long Ptr  ip = CPtr(Long Ptr, @a)
        *bip = *ip
    End If
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As UInteger)
    If a > 4294967295 Then  ' uinteger<64>
        this.s = Bigint_s00
        Dim As ULongInt Ptr  bip = CPtr(ULongInt Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
        Dim As ULongInt Ptr ulip = CPtr(ULongInt Ptr, @a)
        *bip = *ulip
        If (128 And this.s[7]) Then this.s &= Bigint_s0 ' make it positive
    Else                   ' integer<32>
        this.s = Bigint_s0
        Dim As ULong Ptr bip = CPtr(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
        Dim As ULong Ptr uip = CPtr(ULong Ptr, @a)
        *bip = *uip
        If (128 And this.s[3]) Then this.s &= Bigint_s0 ' make it positive
    End If
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As LongInt)
    If a < -2147483648 Or a > 2147483647 Then   '8Byte-Bigint
        this.s = Bigint_s00
        Dim As LongInt Ptr bip = CPtr(LongInt Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
        Dim As LongInt Ptr lip = CPtr(LongInt Ptr, @a)
        *bip = *lip
    Else                    '4Byte-Bigint
        this.s = Bigint_s0
        Dim As Long Ptr bip = CPtr(Long Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
        Dim As Long Ptr  ip = CPtr(Long Ptr, @a)
        *bip = *ip
    End If
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As ULongInt)
    If a > 4294967295 Then  ' 8Byte-Bigint
        this.s = Bigint_s00
        Dim As ULongInt Ptr  bip = CPtr(ULongInt Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
        Dim As ULongInt Ptr ulip = CPtr(ULongInt Ptr, @a)
        *bip = *ulip
        If (128 And this.s[7]) Then this.s &= Bigint_s0 ' make it positive
    Else                   ' 4Byte-Bigint
        this.s = Bigint_s0
        Dim As ULong Ptr bip = CPtr(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
        Dim As ULong Ptr uip = CPtr(ULong Ptr, @a)
        *bip = *uip
        If (128 And this.s[3]) Then this.s &= Bigint_s0 ' make it positive
    End If
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As Single)
    Const As ULong implicit_bit = 2^23
    Const As ULong mant_mask = implicit_bit - 1
    Dim As ULong u, mant
    Dim As Long negative, expo
    Dim As Bigint x
    '----------------------------------------------------
    If a < 0 Then negative = -1 ' remember sign
    a = Int(Abs(a) + 0.5)       ' rectify and round to closest integer
    '----------------------------------------------------
    u = *(CPtr(ULong Ptr, @a))  ' copy Single into a Ulong frame
    expo = (u Shr 23) And 255   ' the 8 bit exponent
    mant = (u And mant_mask )   ' 23 mantissa bits
    '----------------------------------------------------
    If expo = 0 Then         ' the double has zero value or is de-normalized
        this.s = Bigint_s0   ' de-normalized is very very small
    Else
        mant = mant + implicit_bit ' insert the missing implicit bit
        expo = expo - 127          ' remove the exponent bias
        If expo < 24 Then
            mant = mant Shr (23 - expo) ' reduce it to integer
            x.s = Bigint_s0
            *(CPtr(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(x.s))) = mant   ' make Bigint
            If negative Then x = - x
        Else
            Print "WARNING: Single argument was unreliable."
            Sleep : End
        End If
        This = x
    End If
End Constructor

Constructor Bigint (ByRef a As Double)
    Const As ULongInt implicit_bit = 2^52          ' 4503599627370496
    Const As ULongInt mant_mask = implicit_bit - 1 ' 4503599627370495
    Dim As ULongInt u, mant
    Dim As Long negative, expo
    Dim As Bigint x
    '----------------------------------------------------
    If a < 0 Then negative = -1 ' remember sign
    a = Int(Abs(a) + 0.5) ' rectify and round to closest integer
    '----------------------------------------------------
    u = *(CPtr(ULongInt Ptr, @a))   ' copy Double into a Ulongint frame
    expo = (u Shr 52) And 2047  ' the 11 bit exponent
    mant = (u And mant_mask )   ' 52 mantissa bits
    '----------------------------------------------------
    If expo = 0 Then    ' the double has zero value or is de-normalized
        this.s = Bigint_s0   ' de-normalized is very very small
    Else
        mant = mant + implicit_bit ' insert the missing implicit bit
        expo = expo - 1023  ' remove the exponent bias
        If expo < 53 Then
            mant = mant Shr (52 - expo) ' reduce it to integer
            x.s = Bigint_s00
            *(CPtr(ULongInt Ptr, StrPtr(x.s))) = mant   ' make Bigint
            If negative Then x = - x
        Else
            Print "WARNING: Double argument was unreliable."
            Sleep : End
        End If
        This = x
    End If
End Constructor

' pack ascii numeric, octal, dual or hexadecimal string to a Bigint
' the output Bigint will have a length that is a multiple of 4 bytes
' works equivalent to VAL: ignore leading space, accept + and - at
' the beginning and stop if a non-number appears in the string
' 'u' enforces Unsigned conversion
Constructor Bigint (ByRef aa As String)
    Dim as String a = LTrim(aa)  ' remove space
    If Len(a) = 0 Then This.s = Bigint_s0 : Exit Constructor

    #Define decimal 1
    #Define hexadecimal 2
    #Define dual 3
    #Define octal 4
    Dim as Byte mode, sign, usgn
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' check first character and trim to numbers only
    Select case a[0]
        Case Asc("&")
            If Len(a) > 1 Then
                Select case a[1]
                    Case Asc("h"), Asc("H")
                        mode = hexadecimal
                        a = Right(a,Len(a)-2)
                    Case Asc("b"), Asc("B")
                        mode = dual
                        a = Right(a,Len(a)-2)
                    Case Asc("o"), Asc("O")
                        mode = octal
                        a = Right(a,Len(a)-2)
                    Case Else
                        If a[1] > 47 And a[1] < 58 Then ' octal is &3333 and &o3333
                            mode = octal
                            a = LTrim(a,"&")
                        Else
                            This.s = Bigint_s0 : Exit Constructor
                        End If
                End Select
            Else
                This.s = Bigint_s0 : Exit Constructor
            End If
        Case Asc("-")
            a = LTrim(a,"-")
            sign = -1
            mode = decimal
        Case Asc("+")
            a = LTrim(a,"+")
            mode = decimal
        Case Else
            If a[0] > 47 And a[0] < 58 Then
                mode = decimal
            Else
                This.s = Bigint_s0 : Exit Constructor
            End If
    End Select
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' check for suffix
    If a[Len(a)-1] = Asc("u") Then
        usgn = -1
        a = RTrim(a,"u")
    End If

    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' stop conversion if a nonconform type occurs
    Dim i as Long
    For i  = 0 to Len(a)-1
        Select Case mode
            Case hexadecimal
                If (a[i] < 48 And a[i] > 57 ) And (a[i] < 65 And a[i] > 70) And (a[i] < 97 And a[i] > 102) Then
                    a = Left(a,i)
                    Exit For
                End If
            Case octal
                If a[i] < 48 And a[i] > 56 Then
                     a = Left(a,i)
                    Exit For
                End If
            Case dual
                If a[i] < 48 And a[i] > 49 Then
                    a = Left(a,i)
                    Exit For
                End If
            Case decimal
                If a[i] < 48 And a[i] > 57 Then
                    a = Left(a,i)
                    Exit For
                End If
        End Select
    Next i

    Select Case Mode
    Case hexadecimal
        ' pad leading zeroes for positive hex
        If (Len(a) Mod 8) <> 0 Then a = String(8-(Len(a) Mod 8),"0") & a
        Dim as Ulong b
        Dim as Long d
        Dim as Bigint c
        ' get positive or negative value for the first block
        If usgn = -1 Then   ' unsigned suffix
            b = ValUInt("&h" & Mid(a,1,8))
            c = b
        Else
            d = ValInt("&h" & Mid(a,1,8))     ' can be positive or negative
            c = d
        End If
        ' add all following blocks (freakish, but correct also for negative values)
        For i = 9 To Len(a) Step 8
            c = c Shl 32
            b = ValUInt("&h" & Mid(a,i,8))
            c += b
        Next i
        This = c
    Case octal
        ' pad leading zeroes
        If (Len(a) Mod 10) <> 0 Then a = String(10-(Len(a) Mod 10),"0") & a
        Dim as Ulong b
        Dim as Bigint c
        For i = 1 To Len(a) Step 10
            b = ValUInt("&o" & Mid(a,i,10))
            c = c Shl 30
            c += b
        Next i
        This = c
    Case dual
        ' pad leading zeroes if blocksize <> 32bit - positive
        If (Len(a) Mod 32) <> 0 Then a = String(32-(Len(a) Mod 32),"0") & a
        Dim as Ulong b
        Dim as Long d
        Dim as Bigint c
        If usgn = -1 Then
            b = ValUInt("&b" & Mid(a,1,32))
            c = b
        Else
            d = ValInt("&b" & Mid(a,1,32))
            c = d
        End If
        For i = 33 To Len(a) Step 32
            c = c Shl 32
            b = ValUInt("&b" & Mid(a,i,32))
            c += b
        Next i
        This = c
    Case decimal
        Dim As Long p, j, blocks
        ' extend to next multiple of 9 digits
        i = Len(a)
        blocks = i \ 9      ' number of 9 digit blocks needed
        If i Mod 9 <> 0 Then blocks += 1
        p = 9 * blocks
        a = String(p - i, "0") & a  ' pad to next multiple of 9 digits
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        ' decimal to binary conversion
        i = ( 8 + Len(a) * 3.32192809488) \ 8   ' bytes needed for binary
        blocks = 1 + (i \ 4)                    ' adjust to multiple of 4
        this.s = String(blocks * 4, 0 ) ' binary destination string
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        Dim As ULong Ptr bp, bpz, bpcarry, bpdata
        bpz = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(this.s)) ' binary output string[0]
        Dim As ULongInt product, carry, multiplier = 1e9
        bpdata = Cast(ULong Ptr, @product) ' bottom half of product
        bpcarry = bpdata + 1                ' top half of product
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        blocks = 1  ' blocks will be advanced as required by carry
        For i = 1 To Len(a)-8 Step 9   ' msd to lsd in blocks of 9
            bp = bpz    ' point back to the start
            carry = ValULng(Mid(a, i, 9))  ' take the next 9 digit block
            For j = 1 To blocks
                product = multiplier * *bp + carry
                *bp = CULng(*bpdata)
                carry = CULngInt(*bpcarry)
                bp += 1
            Next j
            ' advancing blocks only as needed doubles the speed of conversion
            If Carry Then
                *bp = carry
                blocks += 1 ' an exact count of the blocks used
            End If
        Next i
        this.s = Left(this.s, blocks * 4) ' keep only used blocks
        '-------------------------------------------------------------
        If this.s[Len(this.s)-1] And 128 Then this.s &= Bigint_s0 ' MSB must be 0
        If sign Then
            This = - This
            ' That one doesn't make sense: negative Input to unsigned:
            If usgn Then this.s &= Bigint_s0
        End If
    End Select
End Constructor

Operator Bigint.let (ByRef a As Bigint)
    this.s=a.s
End Operator

'=================================================================
'          OVERLOADED OPERATORS AND FUNCTIONS
'=================================================================
' unary plus +
'================================================================
Operator + (ByRef x As Bigint) As Bigint
    Return x
End Operator

' unary minus -
'================================================================
Operator - (ByRef a As Bigint) As Bigint
    ' Negate the twos complement binary number in a Bigint
    Dim As Bigint s = a
    Dim As Long blocks = Len(s.s) \ 4
    Dim As ULongInt sum
    Dim As ULong carry
    Dim As ULong Ptr ps
    ps = Cast( ULong Ptr, StrPtr(s.s))' the Uinteger data in Bigint
    carry = 1       ' set carry
    Do  ' slow ahead until clear of the carry
        *ps = Not *ps
        sum = CULngInt(*ps) + carry
        *ps = sum
        carry = sum Shr 32
        ps += 1
        blocks -= 1
    Loop Until (carry = 0) Or (blocks = 0)
    If blocks > 0 Then
        Do  ' no carry, so full speed ahead
            *ps = Not *ps
            ps +=1
            blocks -= 1
        Loop Until blocks = 0
    End If
    ' Negating the most negative integer is a problem because carry propagation
    ' flips the sign which should have become positive. But negation of zero
    ' does not change the sign either, so we need to differentiate between zero
    ' and one by quickly examining the final carry bit from the two's complement.
    If carry = 0 Then ' carry was not generated by the most negative number
        If (128 And a.s[Len(a.s)-1]) = (128 And s.s[Len(s.s)-1]) Then s.s &= Bigint_s0
    End If  ' this prevents a negated zero being extended by an extra zero block
    Return s
End Operator

' addition
'================================================================
Operator + (ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint) As Bigint
    If aa = bb Then
        Return Bigint.mul2(aa)
    ElseIf aa.s = Bigint_s0 Then
        Return bb
    ElseIf bb.s = Bigint_s0 Then
        Return aa
    End If
    Dim As Bigint a = aa, b = bb
    Dim As Long blocks, i, j, lena, lenb, sa, sb, delta
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' test to see if the two most significant digits differ which
    lena = Len(a.s) - 1   ' might change the sign without carry
    If a.s[lena] And 128 Then sa = 255  ' sign as a byte
    i = a.s[lena] And 192 ' if MSBs differ then extend the sign
    If (i = 64) Or (i = 128) Then a.s = a.s + String(4, Chr(sa) )
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    lenb = Len(b.s) - 1
    If b.s[lenb] And 128 Then sb = 255
    i = b.s[lenb] And 192
    If (i = 64) Or (i = 128) Then b.s = b.s + String(4, Chr(sb) )
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' align the two Bigints to be added
    delta = Len(a.s) - Len(b.s) ' new values
    If delta <> 0 Then  ' sign extend the shorter
        If delta > 0 Then
            ' a = a
            If b.s[Len(b.s)-1] And 128 Then i = 255 Else i = 0
            b.s = b.s + String(delta, Chr(i) )  ' extend b
        Else
            If aa.s[Len(aa.s)-1] And 128 Then i = 255 Else i = 0
            a.s = a.s + String(-delta, Chr(i) )  ' extend a
            ' b = b
        End If
    End If  ' a and b are now the same length
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' accumulate b into a
    blocks = Len(a.s) \ 4
    Dim As ULongInt sum = 0 ' clear carry
    Dim As ULong carry
    Dim As ULong Ptr pa, pb
    pa = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(a.s) )
    pb = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(b.s) )
    For i = 0 To blocks-1
        sum = CULngInt(pa[i]) + pb[i] + carry
        pa[i] = sum
        carry = sum Shr 32
    Next i
    Bigint.prune(a)
    Return a
End Operator

' subtraction
'================================================================
Operator - (ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint cc = aa + (-bb)
    Return cc
End Operator

' multiply
'================================================================
Operator * (ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint) As Bigint
    If aa.s = Bigint_s0 Or bb.s = Bigint_s0 Then
        Return 0
    ElseIf aa.s = Bigint_s1 Then
        Return bb
    ElseIf bb.s = Bigint_s1 Then
        Return aa
    ElseIf aa = bb Then
        Return bigint.square(aa)  ' squaring is faster
    ElseIf aa.s = Bigint_s2 Then
        Return Bigint.mul2(bb)
    ElseIf bb.s = Bigint_s2 Then
        Return Bigint.mul2(aa)
    Else
        ' sort out the signs and rectify the inputs
        Dim As Bigint a = aa, b = bb, c
        Dim As Long sign_a, sign_b, sign_c
        sign_a = a.s[Len(a.s)-1] And 128
        sign_b = b.s[Len(b.s)-1] And 128
        sign_c = sign_a Xor sign_b
        If sign_a Then a = -a
        If sign_b Then b = -b
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        ' find the dimensions of the problem
        Dim As Long i, j, asize, bsize
        asize = Len(a.s) ' number of bytes in a
        bsize = Len(b.s) ' number of bytes in b
        c.s = String(asize + bsize, Chr(0)) ' initialise accumulator
        asize = asize \ 4 - 1 ' number of blocks in a
        bsize = bsize \ 4 - 1
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        ' pointers into all the Bigints
        Dim As ULong Ptr ia, ib, ic
        ia = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(a.s) )
        ib = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(b.s) )
        ic = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(c.s) )
        Dim As ULongInt product
        Dim As ULong carry
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        For i = 0 To asize
            carry = 0  ' clear carry
            For j = 0 To bsize
                product = CULngInt(ia[i]) * ib[j] + ic[i+j] + carry
                ic[i+j] = product
                carry = product Shr 32
            Next j
            ic[i+j] = carry
        Next i
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        If sign_c = 128 Then c = - c
        Bigint.prune(c)
        Return c
    End If
End Operator

Operator \ (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint a,b
    bigint.div(x,y,a,b)
    Return a
End Operator

Operator / (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Print "no floating point division in Big_Integer"
    Sleep: End
    Return 0
End Operator

Operator Mod (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef y As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint c,d
    bigint.div(x,y,c,d)
    Return d
End Operator

' exponentiation
'================================================================
Operator ^ (ByRef x As Bigint, ByRef n As LongInt) As Bigint
    If n = 2 Then
        Return bigint.square(x)
    Else
        If n < 0 Then
            Print "Cannot raise a big integer to a negative power."
            Sleep : End
        End If
        Dim As Long i = 64
        Do  ' find first set bit
            i = i - 1
        Loop Until Bit(n, i) Or (i = 0)
        i = i + 1
        Dim As Bigint pwr
        pwr = 1
        Do
            i = i - 1
            pwr = bigint.square(pwr)  ' this was a multiply but square is faster
            If Bit(n, i) Then pwr = pwr * x
        Loop Until i = 0
        Return pwr  ' pwr was pruned by square and by multiply
    End If
End Operator

' NOT. Invert all the bits in a Bigint
'================================================================
Operator Not (ByRef aa As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint a = aa
    For i As Long = 0 To Len(a.s)-1
        a.s[i] = 255 - a.s[i]
    Next i
    Return a
End Operator

' shift Bigint n bits left
'================================================================
Operator Shl (ByRef a As Bigint, ByVal n As LongInt) As Bigint
    If n = 0 Then Return a
    If n < 0 Then Return 0
    If a.s = Bigint_s0 Then Return 0
    Dim As LongInt nblocks = n \ 32
    Dim As Byte nbits = n Mod 32
    Dim As Bigint s
    Dim As ULong m = BitSet(CLng(0), nbits)
    s.s = String(nblocks * 4, Chr(0)) + a.s  ' put zeros on the rhs
    s = m * s
    Return s
End Operator

' shift Bigint n bits right, by shifting left nbits and right nblocks
'================================================================
Operator Shr (ByRef a As Bigint, ByVal n As LongInt) As Bigint
    If n = 0 Then Return a
    If n < 0 Then Return 0
    If n > (8 * Len(a.s)) Then Return 0
    Dim As LongInt nblocks = n \ 32
    Dim As Byte nbits = n Mod 32
    Dim As Bigint s = a
    Dim As ULongint m = BitSet(CLngint(0), 32 - nbits )
    s = m * s  ' move bits left
    s.s = Right(s.s, Len(s.s) - (nblocks+1)*4 )
    If Len(s.s) = 0 Then Return 0
    Return s
End Operator

' bitwise AND
'================================================================
Operator And (ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint a = aa, b = bb, c
    Dim As Long lena, lenb, i
    lena = Len(a.s)
    lenb = Len(b.s)
    If lena > lenb Then
        b.s = b.s + String(lena - lenb, Bit(b.s[lenb - 1], 7))
    Else
        a.s = a.s + String(lenb - lena, Bit(a.s[lena - 1], 7))
    End If
    c = b
    For i = 0 To Len(c.s) - 1
        c.s[i] = c.s[i] And a.s[i]
    Next i
    Return c
End Operator

' bitwise Or
'================================================================
Operator Or (ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint a = aa, b = bb, c
    Dim As Long lena, lenb, i
    lena = Len(a.s)
    lenb = Len(b.s)
    If lena > lenb Then
        b.s = b.s + String(lena - lenb, Bit(b.s[lenb - 1], 7))
    Else
        a.s = a.s + String(lenb - lena, Bit(a.s[lena - 1], 7))
    End If
    c = b
    For i = 0 To Len(c.s) - 1
        c.s[i] = c.s[i] Or a.s[i]
    Next i
    Return c
End Operator

' bitwise Xor
'================================================================
Operator Xor (ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint a = aa, b = bb, c
    Dim As Long lena, lenb, i
    lena = Len(a.s)
    lenb = Len(b.s)
    If lena > lenb Then
        b.s = b.s + String(lena - lenb, Bit(b.s[lenb - 1], 7))
    Else
        a.s = a.s + String(lenb - lena, Bit(a.s[lena - 1], 7))
    End If
    c = b
    For i = 0 To Len(c.s) - 1
        c.s[i] = c.s[i] Xor a.s[i]
    Next i
    Return c
End Operator

' bitwise Imp, implication
'================================================================
Operator Imp (ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint a = aa, b = bb, c
    Dim As Long lena, lenb, i
    lena = Len(a.s)
    lenb = Len(b.s)
    If lena > lenb Then
        b.s = b.s + String(lena - lenb, Bit(b.s[lenb - 1], 7))
    Else
        a.s = a.s + String(lenb - lena, Bit(a.s[lena - 1], 7))
    End If
    c = b
    For i = 0 To Len(c.s) - 1
        c.s[i] = (c.s[i] Imp a.s[i])
    Next i
    Return c
End Operator

' bitwise Eqv, equivalence is the complement of Xor
'================================================================
Operator Eqv (ByRef aa As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint a = aa, b = bb, c
    Dim As Long lena, lenb, i
    lena = Len(a.s)
    lenb = Len(b.s)
    If lena > lenb Then
        b.s = b.s + String(lena - lenb, Bit(b.s[lenb - 1], 7))
    Else
        a.s = a.s + String(lenb - lena, Bit(a.s[lena - 1], 7))
    End If
    c = b
    For i = 0 To Len(c.s) - 1
        c.s[i] = (c.s[i] Eqv a.s[i])
    Next i
    Return c
End Operator

Operator Abs (ByRef a As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b = a
    If 128 And b.s[Len(b.s)-1] Then b = - b
    Return b
End Operator

Operator Sgn (ByRef a As Bigint) As Integer
    Dim As Long i = 128 And a.s[Len(a.s)-1]
    If i Then Return -1 ' is negative
    If a.s = Bigint_s0 Then Return 0 ' is zero
    Return 1 ' is positive
End Operator

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' operate and assign
Operator Bigint.+= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This + rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.-= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This - rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.*= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This * rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.\= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Dim As Bigint c = This, d
    bigint.div(c,rhs,This,d)
End Operator

Operator Bigint.mod= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    Dim As Bigint c, d = This
    bigint.div(d,rhs,c,This)
End Operator

Operator Bigint.^= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This ^ rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.shl= (ByRef rhs As LongInt)
    This = This Shl rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.shr= (ByRef rhs As LongInt)
    This = This Shr rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.and= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This And rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.or= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This Or rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.xor= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This Xor rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.imp= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This Imp rhs
End Operator

Operator Bigint.eqv= (ByRef rhs As Bigint)
    This = This Eqv rhs
End Operator

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' comparate
Operator = (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer
    Dim As Integer c = bigint.compare(a, b)
    If c=0 Then Return -1 Else Return 0
End Operator

Operator <> (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer
    Dim As Integer c = bigint.compare(a, b)
    If c=0 Then Return 0 Else Return -1
End Operator

Operator < (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer
    Dim As Integer c = bigint.compare(a,b)
    If c = 1 Then Return -1 Else Return 0
End Operator

Operator > (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer
    Dim As Integer c = bigint.compare(a,b)
    If c = -1 Then Return -1 Else Return 0
End Operator

Operator <= (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer
    Dim As Integer c = bigint.compare(a,b)
    If c = 1 Or c = 0 Then Return -1 Else Return 0
End Operator

Operator >= (ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Integer
    Dim As Integer c = bigint.compare(a, b)
    If c = -1 Or c = 0 Then Return -1 Else Return 0
End Operator

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' FOR Bigint, NEXT Bigint and STEP Bigint
' implicit step versions. Implicit step is 1
Operator Bigint.for( )
End Operator

Operator Bigint.step( )
    This += 1
End Operator

Operator Bigint.next( ByRef end_cond As Bigint ) As Integer
    Return This <= end_cond
End Operator

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' explicit step versions
Operator Bigint.for( ByRef step_var As Bigint )
End Operator

Operator Bigint.step( ByRef step_var As Bigint )
    This += step_var
End Operator

Operator Bigint.next( ByRef end_cond As Bigint, ByRef step_var As Bigint ) As Integer
    If step_var < 0 Then
        Return This >= end_cond
    Else
        Return This <= end_cond
    End If
End Operator

'================================================================
'                  FUNCTIONS
'================================================================
' remove unnecessary leading blocks, prune time easily earns it's keep
Sub Bigint.prune(ByRef a As Bigint)
    a.s = Left(a.s, (((bigint.msbit(a) + 1) \ 32 ) + 1 ) * 4)
    ' Times and space are improved through the sensible use of prune.
    ' Addition of opposite signs or subtraction can cancel many blocks.
    ' A redundant block can appear during multiplication. Square or div2.
    ' Mul2, Complement, Negate and Absolute do not generate unnecessary blocks.
    ' Power is pruned internally by the prune in multiply and square.
End Sub

'=======================================================================
' square a number, approaches twice the speed of multiply for big numbers
Function Bigint.square(ByRef aa As Bigint) As Bigint
    If aa.s = Bigint_s0 Then
        Return aa
    ElseIf aa.s = Bigint_s1 Then
        Return aa
    End If
    Dim As Bigint a = aa, c
    If (128 And a.s[Len(a.s)-1]) Then a = -a
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' find the dimension of the problem
    Dim As Long i, j, asize = Len(a.s)  ' number of bytes in a
    c.s = String(2 * asize, Chr(0) )  ' initialise accumulator
    asize = (asize \ 4) - 1   ' highest block number in a
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' pointers into all the Bigints
    Dim As ULong Ptr pa, pc
    pa = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(a.s) )  ' the base addresses of Bigints
    pc = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(c.s) )
    Dim As ULongInt product  ' bottom half is data, top half will be carry
    Dim As ULong carry, sum
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' multiply one triangular corner only
    For i = 1 To asize
        ' pa starts at 1 not zero because 0,0 is on the diagonal
        ' the second element in a starts at zero
        ' pc is the accumulator ic = icz + i + j
        carry = 0     ' clear carry
        For j = 0 To i - 1
            product = CULngInt(pa[i]) * pa[j] + pc[j+i] + carry
            pc[j+i] = product
            carry = product Shr 32
        Next j
        pc[j+i] = carry     ' line of blocks gets one longer each loop
    Next i
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' double the triangle, cannot do it at same time as squaring diagonal
    ' because it can cause the product to overflow
    carry = 0 ' clear carry
    For i = 0 To (2 * asize) + 1
        sum = pc[i]
        product = CULngInt(sum) + sum + carry
        pc[i] = product
        carry = product Shr 32
    Next i
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' square and accumulate the diagonal elements
    carry = 0     ' clear carry
    For i = 0 To asize
        ' square the diagonal entry, while propagating carry
        sum = pa[i]
        product = CULngInt(sum) * sum + pc[i+i] + carry
        pc[i+i] = product
        carry = product Shr 32
        ' propagate carry through the following odd block of C
        product = CULngInt(pc[i+i+1]) + carry
        pc[i+i+1] = product
        carry = product Shr 32
    Next i
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    If 128 And c.s[Len(c.s)-1] Then c.s = c.s & Bigint_s0 ' sign is positive
    Bigint.prune(c)
    Return c
End Function

'=======================================================================
' shift up one bit, low towards high
Function Bigint.mul2(ByRef a As Bigint) As Bigint
    If a.s = Bigint_s0 Then Return a
    Dim As Long i, sign, sum, carry
    Dim As Bigint b = a
    sign = b.s[Len(b.s) - 1] And 128    ' snag the msb of highest byte
    For i = 0 To Len(b.s) - 1
        sum = b.s[i] + b.s[i] + carry
        carry = HiByte(sum)
        b.s[i] = LoByte(sum)
    Next i
    If ( b.s[Len(b.s) - 1] And 128 ) <> sign Then
        carry = carry * 255
        b.s = b.s + Chr(carry,carry,carry,carry)    ' sign extend four bytes
    End If
    Return b
End Function

'=======================================================================
' shift down one bit, high towards low
Function Bigint.div2(ByRef a As Bigint) As Bigint
    If a.s = Bigint_s0 Then Return a
    Dim As Long i, carry
    Dim As Bigint b = a
    For i = 0 To Len(a.s)-2   ' all except the top byte of four
        b.s[i] = ( b.s[i] \ 2 ) + (128 * (b.s[i+1] And 1))
    Next i
    i = Len(b.s) - 1
    b.s[i] = b.s[i] \ 2
    b.s[i] = b.s[i] Or (2 * ( b.s[i] And 64)) ' sign extend the msb
    Bigint.prune(b)
    Return b
End Function

'=======================================================================
' integer divide, a \ b, return div and mod
Sub Bigint.div(_
    ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef bb As Bigint,_
    ByRef q As Bigint, ByRef r As Bigint)
    If bb.s = Bigint_s0 Then
        Print " Division by zero. "
        Sleep : End
    End If
    Dim As Long lena = Len(a.s), lenbb = Len(bb.s)
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' Test if Longint Division possible
    If (lena <= 8) And (lenbb <= 8) Then ' arguments are one or two blocks
        Dim As Longint va = a, vb = bb
        q = va \ vb
        r = va Mod vb
        Exit Sub
    End If
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' Test if divisor is bigger than dividend
    If Abs(bb) > Abs(a) Then
        r.s = a.s
        q.s = Bigint_s0
        Exit Sub
    End If
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' Read Signs
    Dim As Long sa, sb, sq
    sa = 128 And a.s[lena-1]
    sb = 128 And bb.s[lenbb-1]
    sq = sa Xor sb  ' sign of the result
    '---------------------------------------------------------------------
    ' Setup variables and pointers
    ' r=dividend and remainder
    ' b=divisor
    ' q=quotient
    ' sum=interim result for subtraction

    Dim As Bigint b = bb
    If sb Then b = -b
    r.s = a.s
    If sa Then r = -r
    Dim As UShort Ptr pr, pb, pq
    Dim As ULong sum, offset=&hFFFF0000
    Dim As ULong rblocks,bblocks,blockshift,rounds,blocks
    Dim As ULong lenr = Len(r.s), lenb = Len(b.s)
    Dim As UShort qi, carry
    Dim As Long substract, i
    Dim As ULongInt high48b
    Dim As ULongInt high48r = 0
    pr = Cast(UShort Ptr, StrPtr(r.s))
    pb = Cast(UShort Ptr, StrPtr(b.s))
    rblocks = (lenr \ 2) - 1
    bblocks = (lenb \ 2) - 1
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' convert to 16bit blocklength for effective testdivison
    ' append exactly two zero blocks and ignore the second leading zeroblock
    If pr[rblocks] <> 0 Then
        r.s &= Bigint_s0
        rblocks += 1
    ElseIf pr[rblocks] = 0 And pr[rblocks-1] = 0 Then
        rblocks -= 1
    End If
    If pb[bblocks] <> 0 Then
        b.s &= Bigint_s0
        bblocks += 1
    ElseIf pb[bblocks] = 0 And pb[bblocks-1] = 0 Then
        bblocks -= 1
    End If
    ' new pointer after changing string
    pr = Cast(UShort Ptr, StrPtr(r.s))
    pb = Cast(UShort Ptr, StrPtr(b.s))
    blockshift = rblocks - bblocks
    rounds = blockshift + 1
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' setup quotient to usual 32bit blocklength
    If Bit(rounds,0) = 0 Then
        q.s = String(rounds * 2, 0) ' quotient
    Else
        q.s = String((rounds + 1) * 2, 0)
    End If
    pq = Cast(UShort Ptr, StrPtr(q.s))
    pq += blockshift ' start at msb
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' start calculation
    ' most significant bits of divisor are constant
    If bblocks = 1 Then
        ' shift left if divisor is less than 16 bits
        high48b = CULng(pb[bblocks-1] Shl 16)
    Else
        ' most significant 32bits of divisor, rounded up
        high48b = CULngInt(pb[bblocks-1]) Shl 16 + pb[bblocks-2] + 1
    End If

    For blocks = 1 To rounds
        ' msbits:  remainder of previous step and following 32bits (= ms48bits)
        high48r = CULngInt(pr[rblocks]) Shl 32 + CULng(pr[rblocks-1] Shl 16) + pr[rblocks-2]

        ' testdivision: because of rounding up result may be 1 too low
        qi = (high48r \ high48b )

        If qi > 0 Then
            ' r= r - q*b for every block, begin at lsblock, with carry
            carry = 0
            For i = blockshift To rblocks
                If carry = 0 Then     ' don't apply the offset!
                    sum = pr[i] - (pb[i-blockshift] * qi)
                Else          ' offset because the overflow 16->32 bit
                    sum = pr[i] - (pb[i-blockshift] * qi) + carry + offset
                End If
                pr[i] = sum
                carry = sum Shr 16
            Next i
        End If
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        ' if testdivision was too low, additional substraction needed
        substract = 0
        ' test if remainder > shifted quotient
        For i = rblocks To blockshift Step -1
            substract = pr[i] - pb[i-blockshift]
            If substract <> 0 Then Exit For ' not equal
        Next i  ' equal, check next block

        ' if higher, then substract quotient once and thus fix rounding error
        If substract >= 0 Then
            carry = 1
            qi += 1
            For i = blockshift To rblocks
                sum = pr[i] + CUShort(Not(pb[i-blockshift])) + carry
                pr[i] = sum
                carry = sum Shr 16
            Next i
        End If
        '------------------------------------------------------------
        rblocks -= 1
        blockshift -= 1
        *pq = qi      ' write quotient with pointer
        pq -= 1     ' next block of quotient
    Next blocks
    '------------------------------------------------------------
    ' finalisation
    If Bit(q.s[Len(q.s) - 1], 7) Then q.s &= Bigint_s0
    Bigint.prune(r)    ' trim result
    Bigint.prune(q)
    If sq Then q = -q  ' Xor of input signs
    If sa Then r = -r    ' sign of original input A
    '------------------------------------------------------------
End Sub

'=======================================================================
Function Bigint.factorial(ByRef a As Bigint) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint f = 1, n = a
    Do Until n < 2
        f = f * n
        n = n - 1
    Loop
    Return f
End Function

'=======================================================================
'exponentiation modulus
Function Bigint.modpower(ByRef bb As Bigint, ByRef ee As Bigint, ByRef m As Bigint) As Bigint
    If m.s = Bigint_s0 Then
        Print " Division by zero. "
        Sleep : End
    End If
    If (ee.s[Len(ee.s)-1] And 128) Then
        Print "Cannot raise a Bigint to a negative power"
        Sleep : End
    ElseIf ee.s = Bigint_s0 Then
        If Abs(m) = 1 Then Return 0 Else Return 1
    End If
    Dim As Bigint r = 1, b, y = bb, x ' x is dump for the quotient
    Dim As Long bitlen,i,z
    Dim As ULong Ptr pee
    pee = Cast(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(ee.s))
    Dim As ULong spee
    spee = *pee         ' load first block of exponent in variable

    bitlen = bigint.msbit(ee)    ' the highest set bit
    bigint.div(y,m,x,b)     ' initial reduction

    ' i counts from the lsb to msb, z counts the 32 bits in a block
    For i=0 To bitlen-1
        If Bit(spee,z) Then     ' if bit is set then multiply
            y = r * b
            bigint.div(y,m,x,r)
        End If
        y = bigint.square(b)
        bigint.div(y,m,x,b)
        If z = 31 Then            ' reset z, next block
            z = 0
            pee += 1
            spee = *pee
        Else
            z += 1
        End If
    Next i
    y = r * b  ' bitvalue for highest bit=1
    bigint.div(y,m,x,r)
    Return r
End Function

'=======================================================================
'               BIT FUNCTIONS
'=======================================================================
' find the bit position of the first bit that differs from the sign bit
Function Bigint.msbit(ByRef a As Bigint) As Long
    Dim As Long i, j, k = 0
    i = Len(a.s)
    If 128 And a.s[Len(a.s)-1] Then ' negative
        Do  ' find the highest non-255 byte in the string
            i = i - 1
            j = a.s[i]
        Loop Until (j < 255) Or (i = 0)
        j = 255 - j
    Else                ' positive
        Do  ' find the highest non-zero byte in the string
            i = i - 1
            j = a.s[i]
        Loop Until (j > 0) Or (i = 0)
    End If
    ' find the highest non-sign bit in the byte
    If j And   1 Then k = 1 ' straight code is faster than a loop
    If j And   2 Then k = 2
    If j And   4 Then k = 3
    If j And   8 Then k = 4
    If j And  16 Then k = 5
    If j And  32 Then k = 6
    If j And  64 Then k = 7
    If j And 128 Then k = 8
    k = k + (i * 8) - 1 ' if no bits differ (-1 or 0) then return -1
    Return k
End Function

'=======================================================================
' get the value of a specified bit in a big integer
Function Bigint.Bit_Value(ByRef v As Bigint, ByVal b As ULongInt) As Long
    Dim As Long bitval, by = b \ 8
    If by < Len(v.s) Then
        bitval = Bit(v.s[by], b Mod 8)
    Else
        If v.s[Len(v.s)-1] And 128 Then bitval = -1 ' the extended sign bit
    End If
    Return bitval
End Function

'================================================================
' set a specified bit in a big integer
Function Bigint.Bit_Set(ByRef vv As Bigint, ByVal b As ULongInt) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint v = vv
    Dim As Long by, bi, delta, sign
    by = b \ 8      ' byte number
    bi = b Mod 8    ' bit number
    delta = by - Len(v.s) + 1
    If bi = 7 Then delta = delta + 1    ' protect the sign bit
    If delta > 0 Then    ' lengthen the number
        delta = ((delta + 3)\ 4) * 4
        If v.s[Len(v.s)-1] And 128 Then sign = -1 ' the extended sign bit
        v.s = v.s + String(delta, sign)
    End If
    v.s[by] = BitSet(v.s[by], bi)
    Return v
End Function

'================================================================
' clear a specified bit in a big integer
Function Bigint.Bit_Reset(ByRef vv As Bigint, ByVal b As ULongInt) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint v = vv
    Dim As Long by, bi, delta, sign
    by = b \ 8      ' byte number
    bi = b Mod 8    ' bit number
    delta = by - Len(v.s) + 1
    If bi = 7 Then delta = delta + 1    ' protect the sign bit
    If delta > 0 Then    ' lengthen the number
        delta = ((delta + 3)\ 4) * 4
        If v.s[Len(v.s)-1] And 128 Then sign = -1 ' the extended sign bit
        v.s =  v.s + String(delta, sign)
    End If
    v.s[by] = BitReset(v.s[by], bi)
    Return v
End Function

'=====================================================================
'Main Comparation function - faster than substract ...
'=====================================================================
Function Bigint.compare(ByRef a As Bigint, ByRef b As Bigint) As Long
    ' return -1 for a>b; 1 for a<b and 0 for equal
    Dim As Byte signa, signb
    signa = 128 And a.s[Len(a.s)-1]   ' -1 (true) negative, 0 (false) positive
    signb = 128 And b.s[Len(b.s)-1]
    '-------------------------------------------
    ' sign is different - easy:
    If signa = 0 And signb = -128 Then
        Return -1
    ElseIf signa = -128 And signb = 0 Then
        Return 1
    End If
    '-------------------------------------------
    ' len is different - easy:
    If Len(a.s) > Len(b.s) Then
        If signa = 0 Then
            Return -1
        Else
            Return 1
        End If
    ElseIf Len(a.s) < Len(b.s) Then
        If signa = 0 Then
            Return 1
        Else
            Return -1
        End If
    End If
    '-------------------------------------------
    ' compare block for block:
    Dim As Long i
    Dim as Ulong Ptr pa = CPtr(Ulong Ptr, Strptr(a.s))
    Dim as Ulong Ptr pb = CPtr(Ulong Ptr, Strptr(b.s))

    For i = (Len(a.s) \ 4 ) - 1 To 0 Step -1
        If pa[i] > pb[i] Then
            Return -1
        ElseIf pa[i] < pb[i] Then
            Return 1
        End If
    Next i

    Return 0
End Function

'================================================================
'       CAST AND CONVERSION FUNCTIONS
'================================================================
Operator Bigint.cast() As Byte          ' CByte
    If This > 127 Or This < -128 Then
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to Byte conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    Return *CPtr(Byte Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.cast() As UByte         ' CUByte
    If This > 255 Or This < 0 Then
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to Ubyte conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    Return *CPtr(UByte Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.cast() As Short         ' CShort
    If This > 32767 Or This < -32768 Then
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to Short conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    Return *CPtr(Short Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.cast() As UShort        ' CUShort
    If This > 65535 Or This < 0 Then
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to UShort conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    Return *CPtr(UShort Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.Cast() As Long          ' CLng
    If Len(this.s) <> 4 Then
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to Long conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    Return *CPtr(Long Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.Cast() As ULong          ' CULng
    If This > 4294967295 Or This < 0 Then
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to ULong conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    Return *CPtr(ULong Ptr, StrPtr(this.s))
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.Cast() As LongInt        ' CLongInt
    Dim As String s = this.s
    If Len(s) > 8 Then
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to LongInteger conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    If Len(s) = 4 Then  ' sign extend 4 byte integer to 8 byte LongInt
        If Bit(s[3], 7) Then
            s &= Bigint_s_1
        Else
            s &= Bigint_s0
        End If
    End If
    Return *CPtr(LongInt Ptr, StrPtr(s))
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.Cast() As ULongInt       ' CULongInt
    Dim As String s = this.s
    If This > 18446744073709551615 Or This < 0 Then
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to LongInteger conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    If Len(s) = 4 Then s &= Bigint_s0 'extend to len 8
    Return *CPtr(ULongInt Ptr, StrPtr(s))
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.Cast() As Integer        ' CInt
    Dim a As Integer = 2147483647
    If (a + 1) > a Then     '64bit
        Return CLngInt(This)
    Else
        Return CLng(This)
    End If
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.Cast() As UInteger       ' CUint
    Dim a As UInteger = 4294967295
    If (a + 1) > a Then     '64bit
        Return CULngInt(This)
    Else
        Return CULng(This)
    End If
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.Cast() As Single         ' CSng
    Dim As Bigint b = This
    Dim As ULong ul, Sign_Bit
    If Bit( b.s[Len(b.s) - 1], 7) Then  ' extract the sign bit
        Sign_Bit = CULng(1) Shl 31   ' remember the sign
        b = -b  ' rectify
    End If  ' b is now a positive BigInt
    ' overflows single?
    If Len(b.s) > 32 Then ' 32 bytes * 8 bits per byte = 256 bits
        ' special case of sign bit = lead block &FFFF
        If Len(b.s) = 36 And ( b.s[35] And b.s[34] And b.s[33] And b.s[32] ) = &hFF Then
            ul = Sign_Bit Or &hFF000000 ' all ones exponent
            Return *Cast(Single Ptr, @ul)  ' bit pattern is a double
        End If
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to Single conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    If b = 0 Then Return 0   ' test for simple zero
    Dim As LongInt expo = 8 * Len(b.s) + 126 ' = bits + expo_bias - 1
    ' if needed for the conversion, extend tail with two LS blocks of zero
    If Len(b.s) = 4 Then b.s = Bigint_s0 + b.s
    ' the ms block still contains the data, so no change to expo
    Dim As UByte Ptr ubp = StrPtr(b.s) + Len(b.s) - 1 ' point to the MSbyte
    Dim As Long i
    For i = 0 To 4  ' find the leading non-zero byte, MS block may be zero
        If *ubp > 0 Then Exit For
        ubp = ubp - 1
        expo = expo - 8 ' expo reduction of 8 bits per zero byte skipped
    Next i  ' ubp now points to the MS non-zero byte
    ul = *Cast(ULong Ptr, ubp - 3)  ' normalize bytes, left justify
    For i = 31 To 24 Step -1    ' find the MS set bit
        If Bit(ul, i) Then Exit For
        expo = expo - 1
    Next i  ' i now points to MSbit
    ul = ul Shr (i - 23)  ' shift right to put MSbit in bit 23
    ul = BitReset(ul, 23) ' kill only the implicit bit now in bit 52
    ul = Sign_Bit Or (expo Shl 23) Or ul  ' build the single
    Return *Cast(Single Ptr, @ul)  ' return the bit pattern as a double
End Operator
'----------------------------------------------------------------
Operator Bigint.Cast() As Double    ' CDbl
    Dim As Bigint b = This
    Dim As ULongInt uli, Sign_Bit
    If Bit( b.s[Len(b.s) - 1], 7) Then  ' extract the sign bit
        Sign_Bit = CULngInt(1) Shl 63   ' remember the sign
        b = -b  ' rectify
    End If  ' b is now a positive BigInt
    ' overflows double? if mag > 1.797693134862310e308 = signed infinity
    If Len(b.s) > 128 Then ' 128 bytes * 8 bits per byte = 1024 bits
        ' special case of sign bit = entire block
        If Len(b.s) = 132 And ( b.s[131] And b.s[130] And b.s[129] And b.s[128] ) = &hFF Then
            uli = Sign_Bit Or &h7FF0000000000000 ' all ones exponent
            Return *Cast(Double Ptr, @uli)  ' bit pattern is a double
        End If
        Print " Overflow in BigInt to Double conversion. "
        Print This
        Sleep : End
    End If
    If Len(b.s) = 4 Then    ' test for simple zero
        If ( b.s[3] Or b.s[2] Or b.s[1] Or b.s[0] ) = 0 Then Return 0
    End If
    Dim As LongInt expo = 8 * Len(b.s) + 1022 ' = bits + expo_bias - 1
    ' if needed for the conversion, extend tail with two LS blocks of zero
    If Len(b.s) < 12 Then b.s = Chr(0,0,0,0, 0,0,0,0) + b.s
    ' the ms block still contains the data, so no change to expo
    Dim As UByte Ptr ubp = StrPtr(b.s) + Len(b.s) - 1 ' point to the MSbyte
    Dim As Long i
    For i = 0 To 4  ' find the leading non-zero byte, MS block may be zero
        If *ubp > 0 Then Exit For
        ubp = ubp - 1
        expo = expo - 8 ' expo reduction of 8 bits per zero byte skipped
    Next i  ' ubp now points to the MS non-zero byte
    uli = *Cast(ULongInt Ptr, ubp - 7)  ' normalize bytes, left justify
    For i = 63 To 56 Step -1    ' find the MS set bit
        If Bit(uli, i) Then Exit For
        expo = expo - 1
    Next i  ' i now points to MSbit
    uli = uli Shr (i - 52)  ' shift right to put MSbit in bit 52
    uli = BitReset(uli, 52) ' kill only the implicit bit now in bit 52
    uli = Sign_Bit Or (expo Shl 52) Or uli  ' build the double
    Return *Cast(Double Ptr, @uli)  ' return the bit pattern as a double
End Operator

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' unpack a straight binary string to a decimal ascii string
Operator Bigint.cast() As String
    Dim As bigint b
    Dim As String d
    b = This
    d = Chr(0) ' initial decimal output string
    Dim As Integer i, j, sign
    Dim As UInteger carry
    ' if negative then negate, append the sign later
    If b.s[Len(b.s) - 1] And 128 Then ' negative
        sign = - 1
        b = -b
    End If
    ' change from base 2 to base 100
    For j = Len(b.s) - 1 To 0 Step - 1 ' each byte in string is base 256
        carry = b.s[j] ' the next byte to add after multiply
        Dim as UByte Ptr k = StrPtr(d) + Len(d) - 1 ' added pointer
        For i = Len(d) - 1 To 0 Step - 1
            carry += *k * 256
            *k = carry Mod 100
            carry \= 100
            k -= 1
        Next i
        Do While carry > 0 ' output string overflows
            d = Chr(carry Mod 100) & d ' extend output string as needed
            carry = carry \ 100
        Loop
    Next j
    ' need to split the value of the byte into 2 digits and to convert into ASCII
    Dim As String d2 = Chr(d[0] \ 10 + Asc( "0")) + Chr(d[0] Mod 10 + Asc( "0"))
    ' remove a possible 0 in front of the number
    d2 = LTrim(d2, "0")
    If Len(d2) = 0 Then Return "+0"
    For i = 1 To Len(d) - 1
        d2 &= Chr(d[i] \ 10 + Asc( "0")) & Chr(d[i] Mod 10 + Asc( "0"))
    Next i
    If sign Then d2 = "-" & d2 Else d2 = "+" & d2
    Return d2
End Operator

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' Casting to Bigint
Function CBig Overload(a as Byte) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as UByte) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as Short) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as UShort) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as Integer) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as UInteger) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as Long) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as ULong) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as LongInt) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as ULongInt) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as Single) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as Double) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

Function CBig Overload(a as String) as Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b=a
    Return b
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' convert a Bigint to binary (0110000111 etc.)
Function Bin(ByRef s As Bigint) As String
    Dim As Long i
    Dim As String h     ' lsb is string[0] = little endian
    For i = Len(s.s)-1 To 0 Step -1
        h = h & Bin(s.s[i], 8)
    Next i
    Return h
End Function

Function Bin (ByRef a As Bigint,ByRef n As ULong) As String
    Dim result As String = Right(Bin(a),n)
    Return result
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' convert a Bigint to hexadecimal
Function Hex (ByRef s As Bigint) As String
    Dim As Long i
    Dim As String h     ' lsb is string[0] = little endian
    For i = Len(s.s)-1 To 0 Step -1
        h = h & Hex(s.s[i], 2)
    Next i
    h = ltrim(h,any "0")
    If Len(h) <> 0 Then
        Return h
    Else
        Return "0"
    End If
End Function

Function Hex (ByRef a As Bigint,ByRef n As ULong) As String
    Dim result As String = Right(Hex(a),n)
    If a < 0 And Len(result) < n Then
        result = String(n-Len(result),"F") & result
    ElseIf a >= 0 And Len(result) < n Then
        result = String(n-Len(result),"0") & result
    End If
    Return result
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' convert a Bigint to unsigned hexadecimal (trimmed)
Function Uhex(ByRef s As Bigint) As String
    Dim As Long i
    Dim As Bigint a = s
    If 128 And a.s[Len(a.s)-1] Then     ' Bigint is negative
        Print "cannot convert negative to uniform"
        Sleep : End
    End If
    Dim As String h     ' hex is big-endian
    For i = Len(s.s)-1 To 0 Step -1
        h = h & Hex(s.s[i], 2)
    Next i
    If Len(h) <> 8 Then h=LTrim(h,"00000000")
    Return h
End Function

Function UhexT(ByRef s As Bigint,ByRef n As ULong) As String
    Dim As String h = Uhex(s)
    If Len(h) < n Then
        h = String(n - Len(h),"0") & h
    End If
    Return h
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' convert a Bigint to octal
Function Oct(ByRef a As Bigint) As String
    Dim As String b, c
    Dim As Bigint s = a
    If 128 And a.s[Len(a.s)-1] Then ' extend the sign
        s.s = s.s & Chr(255,255,255,255)
    Else
        s.s = s.s & Bigint_s0
    End If
    Dim As Long i
    Dim As ULongInt u
    For i = 1 To Len(a.s) Step 3
        b = Mid(s.s, i, 3)    ' take three bytes = 24 bits
        u = b[0] + 256 * (b[1] + 256 * b[2])
        c = Oct(u, 8) + c ' eight symbols per three bytes
    Next i
    Return c
End Function

Function Oct (ByRef a As Bigint,ByRef n As ULong) As String
    Dim result As String = Right(Hex(a),n)
    Return result
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' Bigint to twos compliment binary
Function MkBigint(ByRef a As Bigint) As String
    Dim As String s = a.s
    Return s
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' Bigint to unsigned binary
Function MkUBigint(ByRef a As Bigint) As String
    Dim As String s
    If 128 And a.s[Len(a.s)-1] Then     ' Bigint is negative
        Print "cannot convert negative to unsigned"
        Sleep : End
    Else
        s = a.s
    End If
    s = RTrim(s,Bigint_s0)
    Return s
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' Val (as Bigint)
Function ValBigint(ByRef aa As String) As Bigint
    Dim c As Bigint = aa        ' VAL is integrated in the Constructor(As String)
    Return c
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' Val (as UnSignedBigint)
Function ValUBigint(ByRef aa As String) As Bigint
    Dim c As Bigint = aa & "u"  ' use the constructor with unsigned suffix
    Return c
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' twos compliment binary to Bigint
Function CVBigint (ByRef a As String) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b
    If Len(a) = 0 Then
        b = 0
        Return b
    End If
    If (128 And a[Len(a)-1]) Then   ' negative, pad to blocklen with FF
        b.s = a & String((4-Len(a) Mod 4),Chr(255))
    Else
        b.s = a & String((4-Len(a) Mod 4),Chr(0)) ' positive, pad to blocklen with 00
    End If
    Return b
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------
' unsigned binary to Bigint
Function CVUBigint(ByRef a As String) As Bigint
    Dim As Bigint b
    Dim As Long pad
    pad = 4 - (Len(a) Mod 4)
    If (pad = 4) And (Len(a) <> 0) Then pad = 0
    b.s = a & String(pad,0)    ' Pad to blocklen
    If (128 And b.s[Len(b.s)-1]) Then b.s &= Bigint_s0 ' make it positive
    Return b
End Function

'----------------------------------------------------------------

'===============================================================
'       E n d    o f    B i g    I n t e g e r    C o d e
'===============================================================

Zusätzliche Informationen und Funktionen
  • Das Code-Beispiel wurde am 25.11.2013 von Mitgliedstephanbrunker angelegt.
  • Die aktuellste Version wurde am 29.07.2018 von Mitgliedstephanbrunker gespeichert.
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